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Introduction
The Physical Security Domain discusses the importance of physical security in the protection of valuable information assets of the business enterprise. It provides protection techniques for the entire facility, from the outside perimeter to the inside office space, including the data center or server room. In the early days of computers, much of the security focus was built on providing physical security protections.
Think of the data center that contained the mainframe servers and all the information processed and stored on the system. (Harold, 1550) In this environment, the majority of the protections were for physical protection of that one area, such as restricting personnel from the area, enforcing physical access controls with locks and alarms, and implementing environmental controls to ensure the equipment was protected from heat and moisture. The advent of distributed systems changed this focus; resources and information were now in various places within the organization, and in many cases, not even contained within the building. For example, mobile devices, such as laptops and personal digital assistants, provided the ability to carry information outside a limiting physical environment.
According to many information system security surveys, the majority of threats occur from insiders that is, those individuals who have physical access to their own resources. Because of this, physical security is just as relevant today as it was 30 years ago. It is still necessary to protect server rooms by limiting access and installing appropriate locks. (Messaoud, 157) Another factor impacting physical security is the new government and private-sector initiatives to protect critical infrastructures, such as power and water supplies. Because information system assets require some type of power source to operate, the need for clean, constant power is a primary physical security concern.
Threats to infrastructures are evolving and pose different types of threats. Although this may appear to be dramatic, chemical and biological threats have become increasingly more viable methods of attack. One of the challenges for information system security professionals is to understand the security challenges associated with the physical environment.
Although physical security is documented according to some specific technologies, such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) and alarm systems, there has not been much literature that combines the physical security field with the information system security field. (David, 180) There is also a dichotomy between the traditional security professionals who focus primarily on personnel and access controls and the information system security professionals who focus on logical controls.
Many organizations still struggle for control over who will provide security the traditional security divisions or the information management divisions. This lack of coordination and, in many cases, political maneuvering, has created difficulties for organizations to accomplish goals. However, as most security professionals will note, if both sides (security and information management) begin to work together, they will realize that indeed their goals are the same and what is needed is better communication and coordination about how to achieve those goals. (Michael, 93)
That is, by capitalizing on the strength and knowledge of both functions, they will achieve the goals of information system security protecting the organizations valuable resources. Although the challenges have changed along with the technologies, physical security still plays a critical role in protecting the resources of an organization. It requires solidly constructed buildings, emergency preparedness, adequate environmental protection, reliable power supplies, appropriate climate control, and external and internal protection from intruders. (Andrew, 278)
When one thinks of security, one often thinks of it only in terms of implementation. In IT security, one thinks of passwords and firewalls. In personal security, one thinks of avoiding rape and muggers by staying away from dark alleys and suspicious-looking characters. However, to place physical security in the context of IT security, one must examine what security is not just how one implements it.
In the simplest of terms, it boils down to security is controlled access. Implementing security, therefore, is the process of controlling access. Passwords and firewalls control access to network and data resources. Avoiding dark alleys and suspicious characters control access to our bodies and possessions. Likewise, security in the home generally refers to locks on the doors and windows. With the locks, one is controlling the access of persons into the protected area.
Everyone is denied entry unless they can produce the proper key. (Messaoud, 160) By issuing keys to only those persons one desires, one is controlling access. Because one normally does not want anyone entering through the windows after-hours (although a teenager may have a different viewpoint), there is typically no key lock on windows and the level of control is total denial of access. Home alarm systems are gaining increased popularity these days. They also control access by restricting the movements of an intruder who is trying to avoid detection. The definition of security as controlled access also holds true for the familiar information security concepts of availability, integrity, and confidentiality. Availability is ensuring access to the data when needed. (Mary, 89)
Integrity implies that the data has been unmodified; thus, access to change the data is limited to only authorized persons or programs. Confidentiality implies that the information is seen only by those authorized. Thus, confidentiality is controlling access to read the data. All of these concepts are different aspects of controlling access to the data. In a perfect world, one could equate assurance with the degree of control one has over access.
However, this is not a perfect world, and it may be more appropriate to equate assurance with the level of confidence one has in the controls. A high level of assurance equates to a high level of confidence that the access controls are working and vice versa. For example, locking the window provides only moderate assurance because one knows that a determined intruder can easily break the window. But a degree of access control is gained because of the intruder risks detection from the sound of breaking glass. (Earl, 221) Bear in mind, and this is important, that more security is not necessarily less access. That is, controlled access does not equal denied access.
The locked window is certainly a control that denies access totally (with respect to intent, not assurance). On the other hand, Social Security provides security by guaranteeing access to a specified sum of money in old age, or should one say the golden years. (Mary, 144) (However, the degree of confidence that this access control will provide the requisite security is left as an exercise for the reader.) It is obvious that practically all controls fall somewhere in between providing complete access and total denial. Thus, it is the level of control over access not the amount of access that provides security. Confidence in those controls provides assurance. This leads to the next topic: a layered defense.
A Layered Defense
A layered defense boosts the confidence level in access controls by providing some redundancy and expanded protection. The details of planning a layered defense for physical security is beyond the scope of this chapter and should be handled by an experienced physical security practitioner. However, the IT security specialist should be able to evaluate the benefits of a layered defense and the security it will and will not provide.
When planning a layered defense, the author breaks it into three basic principles: breadth, depth, and deterrence. Think of applying breadth as plugging the holes across a single wall. Each hole represents a different way in or different type of vulnerability. Breadth is used because a single type of control rarely eliminates all vulnerabilities. Relating this first in the familiar IT world, suppose one decides to control read access to data by using a log-on password. But the log-on password does not afford protection if one sends the data over the Internet. (Harold, 1562)
A different type of control (i.e., encryption) would therefore provide the additional coverage needed. Physical security works much the same way. For example, suppose one needs to control access to a hot standby site housed in a small one-story warehouse. The facility has a front door, a rear door, a large garage door, and fixed windows that do not open. Locks on the doors control one type of pathway to the inside, but offer no protection for the breakable windows.
Thus, bars would be/could be an additional control to provide complete coverage. The second principle, depth, is commonly ignored yet often the most important aspect for a layered defense. To be realistic with security, one must believe in failure. Any given control is not perfect and will fail, sooner or later. Thus, for depth, one adds layers of additional access controls as a backstop measure. In essence, the single wall becomes several walls, one behind the other. (David, 183)
To illustrate on the familiar ground, take a look at the user password. The password will not stay secret forever, often not for a single day, because users have a habit of writing them down or sharing them. Face it; everyone knows that no amount of awareness briefings or admonishments will make the password scheme foolproof. Thus, we embrace the common dictum, something you have, something you know, and something you are. The password is the something you know part; the others provide some depth to the authentication scheme. (Mary, 152)
Depth is achieved by adding additional layers of protection such as a smart card something you have. If the password alone is compromised, access control is still in place. But recognize that this too has limitations, so one invokes auditing to verify the controls. Again, physical security works the same way. For physical security, depth usually works from the outer perimeter, areas far away from the object to be protected, to the center area near the object to be protected. (Andrew, 263)
In theory, each layer of access control forms a concentric ring toward the center (although very few facilities are entirely round). The layers are often defined at the perimeter of the grounds, the building entrance and exterior, the building floors, the office suites, the individual office, and the file cabinets or safes. Deterrence , the third principle, is simply putting enough controls in place that the cost or feasibility of defeating them without getting caught is more than the prize is worth.
If the prize to be stolen is a spare $5000 server that could be sold (fenced) in the back alleys for only $1000, it may not be worth it to an employee to try sneaking it out a back door with a camera on it when loss of the job and jail time may cost that employee $50,000. Notice here that the deterring factor was the potential cost to the employee, not to the company. (Mary, 93) A common mistake made even by physical security managers is to equate value only to the owner. Owner value of the protected item is needed for risk analysis to weigh the cost of protection to the cost of recovery/replacement. One does not want to spend $10,000 protecting a $5000 item.
However, the principle of deterrence must also consider the value to the perpetrator with respect to their capability the bad guys own risk assessment. In this case, maybe an unmonitored $300 camera at the back door instead of a $10,000 monitored system would suffice. (Earl, 220) A major challenge is determining how much of the layered defense is breadth and depth in contrast to deterrence. One must examine each layers contribution to detection, deterrence, or delay, and then factor in a threats motivation and capabilities. The combined solution is a balancing act called analytical risk management.
Preventive Technical Controls
Preventive technical controls are used to prevent unauthorized personnel or programs from gaining remote access to computing resources. Examples of these controls include:
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Access control software
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Antivirus software
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Library control systems
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Passwords
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Smart cards
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Encryption
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Dial-up access control and callback systems
Access Control Software
The purpose of access control software is to control sharing of data and programs between users. In many computer systems, access to data and programs is implemented by access control lists that designate which users are allowed access. Access control software provides the ability to control access to the system by establishing that only registered users with an authorized log-on ID and password can gain access to the computer system. After access to the system has been granted, the next step is to control access to the data and programs residing in the system. The data or program owner can establish rules that designate who is authorized to use the data or program.
Anti-Virus Software
Viruses have reached epidemic proportions throughout the microcomputing world and can cause processing disruptions and loss of data as well as significant loss of productivity while cleanup is conducted. In addition, new viruses are emerging at an ever-increasing rate currently about one every 48 hours. It is recommended that anti-virus software be installed on all microcomputers to detect, identify, isolate, and eradicate viruses. This software must be updated frequently to help fight new viruses. (Harold , 1575) In addition, to help ensure that viruses are intercepted as early as possible, anti-virus software should be kept active on a system, not used intermittently at the discretion of users.
Library Control Systems
These systems require that all changes to production programs be implemented by library control personnel instead of the programmers who created the changes. This practice ensures separation of duties, which helps prevent unauthorized changes to production programs.
Passwords
Passwords are used to verify that the user of an ID is the owner of the ID. The IDpassword combination is unique to each user and therefore provides a means of holding users accountable for their activity on the system. Fixed passwords that are used for a defined period of time are often easy for hackers to compromise; therefore, great care must be exercised to ensure that these passwords do not appear in any dictionary. Fixed passwords are often used to control access to specific databases. In this use, however, all persons who have authorized access to the database use the same password; therefore, no accountability can be achieved. (David, 185) Currently, dynamic or one-time passwords, which are different for each log-on, are preferred over fixed passwords. Dynamic passwords are created by a token that is programmed to generate passwords randomly.
Dumb Cards
For many years, photo identification badges have sufficed as a credential for most people. With drivers licenses, passports, and employee ID badges, the picture along with the individuals statistics supplies enough information for the authentication process to be completed. Most people flash the badge to the security guard or give a license to a bank teller. Someone visually matches the ID holders face to the information on the card. (William 387)
Smart Cards
Smart cards are usually about the size of a credit card and contain a chip with logic functions and information that can be read at a remote terminal to identify a specific users privileges. Smart cards now carry prerecorded, usually encrypted access control information that is compared with data that the user provides (e.g., a personal ID number or biometric data) to verify authorization to access the computer or network. The automatic teller machine (ATM) card is an improvement on the dumb card ; these smart cards require the user to enter a personal ID number (PIN) along with the card to gain access.
The ATM compares the information encoded on the magnetic stripe with the information entered at the ATM machine. (Earl, 217) The smart card contains microchips that consist of a processor, memory used to store programs and data, and some kind of user interface. Sensitive information is kept in a secret read-only area in its memory, which is encoded during manufacturing and is inaccessible to the cards owner. Typically, these cards use some form of cryptography that protects the information. Not all smart cards work with card readers. A user inserts the card into the reader, the system displays a message, and if there is a match, then the user is granted access. (Andrew, 263)
Types of Access Cards
Access cards employ different types of technology to ensure authenticity: Photo ID cards contain a photograph of the users face and are checked visually. ” Optical-coded cards contain tiny
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